Theologically there are two main kinds of religion among the 12 major religions in the modern world, which generate 4 primary theological or philosophical views of God or Ultimate Reality:
1. Ones that regard God (or Ultimate Reality by whatever name) as primarily Other (i.e., transcendent, which means or connotes "beyond," "above," "up there/out there").a. This view leads to what might be called a "Theology of Discontinuity or Separation," in which the believer (together with the human race) is distinct,and almost inevitably estranged somehow, from God.2. Ones that regard God (or Ultimate Reality by whatever name) as primarilyWithin (i.e., immanent, which means or connotes "indwelling," "inner essence," "infused."b. The main types of theology that fit this category are theism and deism.
(1) Theism is the belief in a God (a) who is not the stuff of the universe and who does not dwell in it (or nature), but in some heavenly realm, (b) created the universe other than "himself," and (c) continues to beactive providentially in its events (i.e., in history)- in ancient culture religions (e.g., Egyptian and Greek) there could be many such gods -- hence, polytheism(2) Deism is the belief in a God (a) who is not the stuff of the universe and who does not dwell in it (or nature), but in some heavenly realm, (b) created the universe other than "himself," and (c) "programmed" moral and natural law into it so well that he no longer needs to (or does) intervene in its affairs -- hence, no answered prayers, no miracles, and no need to worship this largely disinterested God.- modern theistic religions in the Western world (Judaism, Christianity and Islam) are monotheistic, for they believe in only one such god (Yahweh, God, or Allah)
- this theology was a revision of theism by 17th and 18th century Enlightenment thinkers, whose main principles were rationalism ("Believe only what makes sense.") and empiricism ("Seeing is believing.")- Thomas Jefferson and most of our country's "founding fathers" were Deists! (So much for "Faith of Our Fathers"?!)
a. This view leads to what might be called a "Theology of Continuity or Saturation," in which the believer (along with Nature) actually embodies divinity as a birthright -- and is in a very real sense God (or UltimateReality), at least essentially.b. The main types of theology that fit this category are monism/pantheismand panentheism.
(1) Monism (or more specifically non-materialistic monism) the belief that an Ultimate or Supreme Principle or Power (a) that is within the stuff of the universe and who does dwell in it (and nature), rather than in some heavenly realm, (b) somehow emits or emanates an eternal and uncreated universe as an
expression of itself and (c) continues to be its inner presence, at levels much deeper than daily/historical events- This is the sort of view we shall encounter in Hinduism's belief in Brahman, Buddhism's teaching about Shunyata, and Taoism's attention to the Tao. (None of these religions has a personal supreme God, only a Supreme Something.)(2) Panentheism is the belief that an Ultimate or Supreme Principle or Power (a) that is within the stuff of the universe and who does dwell in it (and nature), but also (b) is somehow beyond (or "transcends") the cosmos as well, but (c) is neverthelss best approached and experiencedas an inner, deeper presence in nature and human nature.- Pantheism (literally "All is God") is what you get when you use Western "God" language for this Inner Divine Essence. The difference between religious or spiritual monism and pantheism, therefore, is merely semantic (though that semantic difference makes one a theology and the other a philosophy.
- whereas pantheism says that God is the inner spiritual essence of the universe, panentheism says that God is the inner essence of the universe, and then some! the universe is just as inherently divine as in pantheism, but there is divinity yet "left over" ("transcending" thecosmos)- panentheism is a fairly modern invention, a synthesis or mixture of Western theism and Eastern monism
________________________________________ The following diagram illustrates the above four views as they relate to transcendence and immanence:
For the purposes of this course, we may eliminate deism and panentheism, since no major world religion has adopted these viewpoints, though one or two may reflect them. (Confucius' attitude toward the gods, for example, has been described by some as "deistic," while Hinduism's view of Brahman has sometimes been interpeted as panenthistic.) The options, then, really boil down to these two:
NOTE: While hardly any religion is purely one or the other of these two types -- indeed most religions mix them in one way or another -- every religion does tend to emphasize either God's otherness (transcendence) or God's withinness (immanence). Again, as a rule, religions of the Middle East and West (Judaism/Christianity/Islam) do the former, while religions of southern and eastern Asia (Hinduism/Buddhism/Taoism) do the latter. (But why?!)
B. Ultimate RealityNOTE: This and the following three sections really just elaborate the two-theology diagram and explanations above.
1. WestC. Cosmos and Timea. The Ultimate is a God.2. East
b. God is personal.
c. God is supernatural (i.e. transcendent with respect to
nature)
d. God is active (immanent) in history.-- Thus the God of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam is a God of history, not of nature. (The latter evidences God's creativity and handiwork, and can be used by God; but God is not to be found in it.)a. The Ultimate is an Entity (Power? Principle? Presence?
Force? Source?), but not a god.
b. This Entity is non-personal.
c. God is inner-natural (i.e. immanent in nature & human
nature)
d. God is "transcends" everyday reality and history, in the
weak sense of escaping our notice (so deeply within does
it lie).-- Thus the Ultimate of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Taoism is profoundly natural -- the inner essence of everything and everyone.1. WestD. Humanity (Nature, Predicament, & Destiny)a. The cosmos is secular (i.e., unsacred).2. East
b. The cosmos is finite: created in a moment of time (ex
nihilo?) and heading toward an absolute end.
c. Time is linear: it proceeds as a non-repeatable succession
of events.a. The cosmos is sacred (i.e., essentially divine).
b. The cosmos is infinite: uncreated and eternal
c. Time is cyclical: it proceeds as a never-ending succession
of events, eras, ages, lives, etc.1. WestE. Spiritualitya. Humans are mere creatures, in the "image and likeness of2. East
God," perhaps, but essentially and thoroughly human
nonetheless.
b. The human predicament is defined as a broken
relationship with the God who is "Other." (characterized
by sin, sinfulness, fallenness, alienation, etc.)
c. The goal is to have that broken relationship mended, to
"get right with God," either by your own efforts at
obedicnce (Judaism) or submission (Islam) to God, or by
receiving God's free give of grace and forgiveness
(Christianity), so as to enjoy communion with God and
the other "saved," perhaps eternally.a. Humans are essentially divine (one with the One).
b. The human predicament is defined as ignorance,
namely, of one's true nature: we don't usually look or act
divine! That ignorance is the source of all of our
misdoings and misery.
c. The goal is to overcome that ignorance with
Enlightenment or Wisdom (not mere knowledge!),
usually with the help of a great teacher or spiritual master,
and thus to realize the absolute union that one has (and
always really has had) with the UltimateThere are two main kinds of spirituality (i.e., ways of relating to the Ultimate Reality), corresponding to the two types of theology described/diagrammed above:
1. A spirituality of communication or communion with the OneF. Islam and Judaism -- a comparison
Above --reflected in prayer to God-as-Other (Western:
Jud./Chr./Isl.). one might call this pattern, symbolically, "spirituality
of the mountain top," where one may encounter the Higher Power.- this pattern is essentially relational, and the problems that2. A spirituality of identification or union with the One Within --
arise are set in that context, mainly in terms of sin (as a
human condition) or sins (human acts) that spoil the
relationship ; the need, then, is to "get right with God"
reflected in meditation upon the Inner (Eastern: Hinduism/
Buddhism/Taoism.); one might call this pattern, symbolically,
"spirituality of the cave," where one may encounter the Deeper
Power.
- this pattern is essentially unitive, and the problems that arise are
set in that context, mainly in terms of ignorance of one's true
nature, which then lead to bad behaviors and a lack of
self-fulfillment- the need is to "know one’s self" (as none other than The
One Ultimate Self implied in monism/pantheism!)1. Similaritiesa. strict monotheism: the belief that God is One.2. Major difference: the question of afterlife(1) Judaism's Shema: Shema Israel, Adonai
Elohanu; Adonai Ehod ("Hear, O Israel, the
Lord Our God, the Lord is One.")
(2) Islam: La ilaha illa Allah, Muhammad rasul
Allah ("There is no god but God, and
Muhammad is God's prophet.")
[It's the same God, at least according to Muslims. The next two are direct consequences of this strict monotheism.]b. Weak Satans (no Devil figure)
(1) Judaism: "Satan" (cf. OT) is agent of God,
do-er of God's dirty work, e.g., "proving" the
righteous, as in Job
(2) Islam: Iblis is leader of the evil jinn (demons),
but serves like OT Satan as tempter and
prosecutor of humans;
[In neither case is Satan the secondary god he is in Christianity = a threat to Xty's claim to be monotheistic!]c. human founder
1. Judaism: Moshe (Moses), c. 1250 BCE
2. Islam: Muhammad-neither is divine, or atoning figure
[Christianity's claim to be monotheistic puzzles Jews and Muslims because of Christianity's (1) doctrine the Trinity: three coeternal Persons in one "Godhead; (2) equation of Jesus with God; and (3) strong Satan with evil but god-like powers, a realm, legions of spiritual beings, etc.]d. a common ancestor: Abraham, c. 1800 BCE?
(1) Judaism: through Isaac (Sarah)
(2) Islam: through Ishmael (through Hagar)
e. a high regard for scripture as revelation.(1) Judaism: Tanakh (Torah, Prophets, Writings)
-- many authors
(2) Islam: Quran/Koran -- one author (either
Muhammad or God)
f. an emphasis on following certain rules in obeying God(1) Judaism: 613 Commandments
(2) Islam: Five Pillars (Creed, prayer, fasting
during Ramadan, almsgiving/charity,
pilgrimmage)
[In both, atonement through one's own efforts (no redeemer figure)]g. Division into branches (modern)
(1) Judaism: Orthodox, Conservative, Reform
(2) Islam: Sunni and Shi'a (Shi'ite)
h. Mysticism as a minor movement(1) Judaism: Cabala/Kabbalah (includes some
occult: angels, demons, magic, charms,
numerology, etc.)
(2) Islam: Sufism (a Sufi is a Muslim mystic)
i. Holy Spaces/Places(1) Judaism: Jerusalem
(2) Islam: Mecca (and Medina and Jerusalem)
j. Sacred Time(1) Judaism: Shabbat + high holy days (e.g.,
Rosh Hashana, Yom Kippur)
(2) Islam: Friday (more practical than
theological/scriptural) + Ramadan
a. Judaism: at least in its classic (OT) or Orthodox form, has
no concept of the afterlife, since they have no notion of
separable soul; in Jesus's day, Pharisees did entertain the
idea of eternal life, but it necessitated bodily resurrection;b. Islam: soul sleeps until resurrection day when they rejoin
bodies for judgment; some go to heaven and some to hell
